local operator). All further unqualified dynamic identifiers will be in this namespace.
A package statement affects only dynamic variables--including those you've used local on--but
not lexical variables created with my. Typically it would be the
first declaration in a file to be included by the require or use operator. You can switch into a package in more than one place; it
influences merely which symbol table is used by the compiler for the rest
of that block. You can refer to variables and filehandles in other packages
by prefixing the identifier with the package name and a double colon:
$Package::Variable. If the package name is null, the main package is assumed. That is, $::sail is equivalent to $main::sail.
(The old package delimiter was a single quote, but double colon is now the preferred delimiter, in part because it's more readable to humans, and in part because it's more readable to emacs macros. It also makes C++ programmers feel like they know what's going on.)
Packages may be nested inside other packages: $OUTER::INNER::var. This implies nothing about the order of name lookups, however. All
symbols are either local to the current package, or must be fully qualified
from the outer package name down. For instance, there is nowhere within
package OUTER that $INNER::var refers to $OUTER::INNER::var. It would treat package INNER as a totally separate global package.
Only identifiers starting with letters (or underscore) are stored in a
package's symbol table. All other symbols are kept in package main, including all of the punctuation variables like $_. In addition, the identifiers
STDIN,
STDOUT,
STDERR,
ARGV,
ARGVOUT,
ENV,
INC, and
SIG are forced to be in package
main, even when used for other purposes than their built-in one. Note also
that, if you have a package called m,
s, or y, then you can't use the qualified form of an identifier because it will be
interpreted instead as a pattern match, a substitution, or a translation.
(Variables beginning with underscore used to be forced into package main,
but we decided it was more useful for package writers to be able to use
leading underscore to indicate private variables and method names.
$_ is still global though.)
Evaled strings are compiled in the package in which the
eval was compiled. (Assignments to $SIG{}, however, assume the signal handler specified is in the main package. Qualify the signal handler name if you wish to have a signal
handler in a package.) For an example, examine perldb.pl in the Perl library. It initially switches to the DB package so that the debugger doesn't interfere with variables in the script
you are trying to debug. At various points, however, it temporarily
switches back to the main package to evaluate various expressions in the context of the main package (or wherever you came from). See the perldebug manpage.
See the perlsub manpage for other scoping issues related to my and local,
or the perlref manpage regarding closures.
%main::, or %:: for short. Likewise symbol table for the nested package mentioned earlier
is named %OUTER::INNER::.
The value in each entry of the hash is what you are referring to when you
use the *name typeglob notation. In fact, the following have the same effect, though the
first is more efficient because it does the symbol table lookups at compile
time:
local(*main::foo) = *main::bar; local($main::{'foo'}) =
$main::{'bar'};
You can use this to print out all the variables in a package, for instance. Here is dumpvar.pl from the Perl library:
package dumpvar;
sub main::dumpvar {
($package) = @_;
local(*stab) = eval("*${package}::");
while (($key,$val) = each(%stab)) {
local(*entry) = $val;
if (defined $entry) {
print "\$$key = '$entry'\n";
}
if (defined @entry) {
print "\@$key = (\n";
foreach $num ($[ .. $#entry) {
print " $num\t'",$entry[$num],"'\n";
}
print ")\n";
}
if ($key ne "${package}::" && defined %entry) {
print "\%$key = (\n";
foreach $key (sort keys(%entry)) {
print " $key\t'",$entry{$key},"'\n";
}
print ")\n";
}
}
}
Note that even though the subroutine is compiled in package dumpvar, the name of the subroutine is qualified so that its name is inserted into
package main.
Assignment to a typeglob performs an aliasing operation, i.e.,
*dick = *richard;
causes variables, subroutines, and file handles accessible via the
identifier richard to also be accessible via the identifier dick. If you want to alias only a particular variable or subroutine, you can
assign a reference instead:
*dick = \$richard;
makes $richard and $dick the same variable, but
leaves @richard and @dick as separate arrays.
Tricky, eh?
This mechanism may be used to pass and return cheap references into or from subroutines if you won't want to copy the whole thing.
%some_hash = ();
*some_hash = fn( \%another_hash );
sub fn {
local *hashsym = shift;
# now use %hashsym normally, and you
# will affect the caller's %another_hash
my %nhash = (); # do what you want
return \%nhash;
}
On return, the reference will overwrite the hash slot in the symbol table
specified by the *some_hash typeglob. This is a somewhat
tricky way of passing around references cheaply when you won't want to have
to remember to dereference variables explicitly.
Another use of symbol tables is for making ``constant'' scalars.
*PI = \3.14159265358979;
Now you cannot alter $PI, which is probably a good thing all in all.
You can say *foo{PACKAGE} and *foo{NAME} to find out what name and package the *foo symbol table entry
comes from. This may be useful in a subroutine which is passed typeglobs as
arguments
sub identify_typeglob {
my $glob = shift;
print 'You gave me ', *{$glob}{PACKAGE}, '::', *{$glob}{NAME}, "\n";
}
identify_typeglob *foo;
identify_typeglob *bar::baz;
This prints
You gave me main::foo
You gave me bar::baz
The *foo{THING} notation can also be used to obtain references to the individual elements of *foo, see the perlref manpage.
BEGIN and END
routines. The sub is optional for these routines.
A BEGIN subroutine is executed as soon as possible, that is, the moment it is
completely defined, even before the rest of the containing file is parsed.
You may have multiple BEGIN blocks within a file--they will execute in order of definition. Because a BEGIN
block executes immediately, it can pull in definitions of subroutines and
such from other files in time to be visible to the rest of the file.
An END subroutine is executed as late as possible, that is, when the interpreter
is being exited, even if it is exiting as a result of a die
function. (But not if it's is being blown out of the water by a signal--you
have to trap that yourself (if you can).) You may have multiple END blocks within a file--they will execute in reverse order of definition; that is: last in, first out
(LIFO).
Inside an END subroutine $? contains the value that the script is going to pass to exit. You can modify $? to change the exit value of the script. Beware of changing $? by accident (e.g.,, by running something via system).
Note that when you use the -n and -p switches to Perl, BEGIN
and END work just as they do in awk, as a degenerate case.
@ISA array.
For more on this, see the perlobj manpage.
For example, to start a normal module called Some::Module, create a file called Some/Module.pm and start with this template:
package Some::Module; # assumes Some/Module.pm
use strict;
BEGIN {
use Exporter ();
use vars qw($VERSION @ISA @EXPORT @EXPORT_OK %EXPORT_TAGS);
# set the version for version checking
$VERSION = 1.00;
# if using RCS/CVS, this may be preferred
$VERSION = do { my @r = (q$Revision: 2.21 $ =~ /\d+/g); sprintf "%d."."%02d" x $#r, @r }; # must be all one line, for MakeMaker
@ISA = qw(Exporter);
@EXPORT = qw(&func1 &func2 &func4);
%EXPORT_TAGS = ( ); # eg: TAG => [ qw!name1 name2! ],
# your exported package globals go here,
# as well as any optionally exported functions
@EXPORT_OK = qw($Var1 %Hashit &func3);
}
use vars @EXPORT_OK;
# non-exported package globals go here
use vars qw(@more $stuff);
# initalize package globals, first exported ones
$Var1 = '';
%Hashit = ();
# then the others (which are still accessible as $Some::Module::stuff)
$stuff = '';
@more = ();
# all file-scoped lexicals must be created before
# the functions below that use them.
# file-private lexicals go here
my $priv_var = '';
my %secret_hash = ();
# here's a file-private function as a closure,
# callable as &$priv_func; it cannot be prototyped.
my $priv_func = sub {
# stuff goes here.
};
# make all your functions, whether exported or not;
# remember to put something interesting in the {} stubs
sub func1 {} # no prototype
sub func2() {} # proto'd void
sub func3($$) {} # proto'd to 2 scalars
# this one isn't exported, but could be called!
sub func4(\%) {} # proto'd to 1 hash ref
END { } # module clean-up code here (global destructor)
Then go on to declare and use your variables in functions without any qualifications. See the Exporter manpage and the Perl Modules File for details on mechanics and style issues in module creation.
Perl modules are included into your program by saying
use Module;
or
use Module LIST;
This is exactly equivalent to
BEGIN { require "Module.pm"; import Module; }
or
BEGIN { require "Module.pm"; import Module LIST; }
As a special case
use Module ();
is exactly equivalent to
BEGIN { require "Module.pm"; }
All Perl module files have the extension .pm. use assumes this so that you don't have to spell out ``Module.pm'' in quotes. This also helps to differentiate new modules from old .pl and .ph files. Module names are also capitalized unless they're functioning as pragmas, ``Pragmas'' are in effect compiler directives, and are sometimes called ``pragmatic modules'' (or even ``pragmata'' if you're a classicist).
Because the use statement implies a BEGIN block, the importation of semantics happens at the moment the use statement is compiled, before the rest of the file is compiled. This is how
it is able to function as a pragma mechanism, and also how modules are able
to declare subroutines that are then visible as list operators for the rest
of the current file. This will not work if you use require
instead of use. With require you can get into this problem:
require Cwd; # make Cwd:: accessible
$here = Cwd::getcwd();
use Cwd; # import names from Cwd::
$here = getcwd();
require Cwd; # make Cwd:: accessible
$here = getcwd(); # oops! no main::getcwd()
In general use Module ; is recommended over require Module;.
Perl packages may be nested inside other package names, so we can have
package names containing ::. But if we used that package name directly as a filename it would makes
for unwieldy or impossible filenames on some systems. Therefore, if a
module's name is, say,
Text::Soundex, then its definition is actually found in the library file Text/Soundex.pm.
Perl modules always have a .pm file, but there may also be dynamically linked executables or autoloaded
subroutine definitions associated with the module. If so, these will be
entirely transparent to the user of the module. It is the responsibility of
the .pm file to load (or arrange to autoload) any additional functionality. The
POSIX module happens to do both dynamic loading and
autoloading, but the user can say just use POSIX to get it all.
For more information on writing extension modules, see the perlxs manpage and the perlguts manpage.
The module and its user have a contract, part of which is common law, and part of which is ``written''. Part of the common law contract is that a module doesn't pollute any namespace it wasn't asked to. The written contract for the module
(A.K.A. documentation) may make other provisions. But then you know when you
use RedefineTheWorld that you're redefining the world and willing to take the consequences.
no integer;
no strict 'refs';
which lasts until the end of that BLOCK.
Unlike the pragmas that effect the $^H hints variable, the use
vars and use subs declarations are not BLOCK-scoped. They allow you to pre-declare a
variables or subroutines within a particular
file rather than just a block. Such declarations are effective for the entire
file for which they were declared. You cannot rescind them with no vars or no subs.
The following pragmas are defined (and have their own documentation).
@INC at compile time to use MakeMaker's uninstalled
version of a package
@INC at compile time
@INC
stat functions
syslog calls
readline packages
expand and
unexpand
gmtime function
localtime function
find `perl -e 'print "@INC"'` -name '*.pm' -print
They should all have their own documentation installed and accessible via
your system man command. If that fails, try the perldoc program.
Many popular
C extension modules do not come bundled (at least, not completely) due to their sizes, volatility, or simply lack of time for adequate testing and configuration across the multitude of platforms on which Perl was beta-tested. You are encouraged to look for them in archie, the Perl
FAQ or Meta-FAQ, the
WWW page, and even with their authors before randomly posting asking for their present condition and disposition.
South Africa ftp://ftp.is.co.za/programming/perl/CPAN/
Hong Kong ftp://ftp.hkstar.com/pub/CPAN/ Japan ftp://ftp.jaist.ac.jp/pub/lang/perl/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.lab.kdd.co.jp/lang/perl/CPAN/ South Korea ftp://ftp.nuri.net/pub/CPAN/ Taiwan ftp://dongpo.math.ncu.edu.tw/perl/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.wownet.net/pub2/PERL/
Australia ftp://ftp.netinfo.com.au/pub/perl/CPAN/ New Zealand ftp://ftp.tekotago.ac.nz/pub/perl/CPAN/
Austria ftp://ftp.tuwien.ac.at/pub/languages/perl/CPAN/ Belgium ftp://ftp.kulnet.kuleuven.ac.be/pub/mirror/CPAN/ Czech Republic ftp://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/Languages/Perl/CPAN/ Denmark ftp://sunsite.auc.dk/pub/languages/perl/CPAN/ Finland ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/languages/perl/CPAN/ France ftp://ftp.ibp.fr/pub/perl/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.pasteur.fr/pub/computing/unix/perl/CPAN/ Germany ftp://ftp.gmd.de/packages/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.leo.org/pub/comp/programming/languages/perl/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.mpi-sb.mpg.de/pub/perl/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.rz.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/pub/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.uni-erlangen.de/pub/source/Perl/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.uni-hamburg.de/pub/soft/lang/perl/CPAN/ Greece ftp://ftp.ntua.gr/pub/lang/perl/ Hungary ftp://ftp.kfki.hu/pub/packages/perl/CPAN/ Italy ftp://cis.utovrm.it/CPAN/ the Netherlands ftp://ftp.cs.ruu.nl/pub/PERL/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.EU.net/packages/cpan/ Norway ftp://ftp.uit.no/pub/languages/perl/cpan/ Poland ftp://ftp.pk.edu.pl/pub/lang/perl/CPAN/ ftp://sunsite.icm.edu.pl/pub/CPAN/ Portugal ftp://ftp.ci.uminho.pt/pub/lang/perl/ ftp://ftp.telepac.pt/pub/CPAN/ Russia ftp://ftp.sai.msu.su/pub/lang/perl/CPAN/ Slovenia ftp://ftp.arnes.si/software/perl/CPAN/ Spain ftp://ftp.etse.urv.es/pub/mirror/perl/ ftp://ftp.rediris.es/mirror/CPAN/ Sweden ftp://ftp.sunet.se/pub/lang/perl/CPAN/ Switzerland ftp://sunsite.cnlab-switch.ch/mirror/CPAN/ UK ftp://ftp.demon.co.uk/pub/mirrors/perl/CPAN/ ftp://sunsite.doc.ic.ac.uk/packages/CPAN/ ftp://unix.hensa.ac.uk/mirrors/perl-CPAN/
Ontario ftp://ftp.utilis.com/public/CPAN/ ftp://enterprise.ic.gc.ca/pub/perl/CPAN/ Manitoba ftp://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/pub/CPAN/ California ftp://ftp.digital.com/pub/plan/perl/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.cdrom.com/pub/perl/ Colorado ftp://ftp.cs.colorado.edu/pub/perl/CPAN/ Florida ftp://ftp.cis.ufl.edu/pub/perl/CPAN/ Illinois ftp://uiarchive.uiuc.edu/pub/lang/perl/CPAN/ Massachusetts ftp://ftp.iguide.com/pub/mirrors/packages/perl/CPAN/ New York ftp://ftp.rge.com/pub/languages/perl/ North Carolina ftp://ftp.duke.edu/pub/perl/ Oklahoma ftp://ftp.ou.edu/mirrors/CPAN/ Oregon ftp://ftp.orst.edu/pub/packages/CPAN/ Pennsylvania ftp://ftp.epix.net/pub/languages/perl/ Texas ftp://ftp.sedl.org/pub/mirrors/CPAN/ ftp://ftp.metronet.com/pub/perl/ Washington ftp://ftp.spu.edu/pub/CPAN/
Chile ftp://sunsite.dcc.uchile.cl/pub/Lang/perl/CPAN/
Perl implements a class using a package, but the presence of a package doesn't imply the presence of a class. A package is just a namespace. A class is a package that provides subroutines that can be used as methods. A method is just a subroutine that expects, as its first argument, either the name of a package (for ``static'' methods), or a reference to something (for ``virtual'' methods).
A module is a file that (by convention) provides a class of the same name (sans the .pm), plus an import method in that class that can be called to fetch exported symbols. This module may implement some of its methods by loading dynamic C or C++ objects, but that should be totally transparent to the user of the module. Likewise, the module might set up an AUTOLOAD function to slurp in subroutine definitions on demand, but this is also transparent. Only the .pm file is required to exist.
If you are writing a module to expand an already existing set of modules, please coordinate with the author of the package. It helps if you follow the same naming scheme and module interaction scheme as the original author.
sub new {
my $class = shift;
return bless {}, $class;
}
or even this if you'd like it to be used as either a static or a virtual method.
sub new {
my $self = shift;
my $class = ref($self) || $self;
return bless {}, $class;
}
Pass arrays as references so more parameters can be added later (it's also faster). Convert functions into methods where appropriate. Split large methods into smaller more flexible ones. Inherit methods from other modules if appropriate.
Avoid class name tests like: die "Invalid" unless ref $ref eq 'FOO'. Generally you can delete the ``eq 'FOO''' part with no harm at all. Let the objects look after themselves!
Generally, avoid hardwired class names as far as possible.
Avoid $r->Class::func where using @ISA=qw and
$r->func would work (see the perlbot manpage for more details).
Use autosplit so little used or newly added functions won't be a burden to programs which don't use them. Add test functions to the module after __END__ either using AutoSplit or by saying:
eval join('',<main::DATA>) || die $@ unless caller();
Does your module pass the 'empty sub-class' test? If you say ``@SUBCLASS::ISA = qw;'' your applications should be able to use
SUBCLASS in exactly the same way as
YOURCLASS. For example, does your application still work if you change:
$obj = new YOURCLASS;
into: $obj = new SUBCLASS; ?
Avoid keeping any state information in your packages. It makes it difficult for multiple other packages to use yours. Keep state information in objects.
Always use -w. Try to use strict; (or use strict qw;). Remember that you can add no strict qw; to individual blocks of code which need less strictness. Always use -w. Always use -w! Follow the guidelines in the perlstyle manual.
Coding style is a matter of personal taste. Many people evolve their style over several years as they learn what helps them write and maintain good code. Here's one set of assorted suggestions that seem to be widely used by experienced developers:
Use underscores to separate words. It is generally easier to read $var_names_like_this than $VarNamesLikeThis, especially for non-native speakers of English. It's also a simple rule that works consistently with
VAR_NAMES_LIKE_THIS.
Package/Module names are an exception to this rule. Perl informally reserves lowercase module names for 'pragma' modules like integer and strict. Other modules normally begin with a capital letter and use mixed case with no underscores (need to be short and portable).
You may find it helpful to use letter case to indicate the scope or nature of a variable. For example:
$ALL_CAPS_HERE constants only (beware clashes with perl vars) $Some_Caps_Here package-wide global/static $no_caps_here function scope my() or local() variables
Function and method names seem to work best as all lowercase. e.g.,, $obj->as_string.
You can use a leading underscore to indicate that a variable or function should not be used outside the package that defined it.
Do NOT export anything else by default without a good reason!
Exports pollute the namespace of the module user. If you must export try to
use @EXPORT_OK in preference to @EXPORT and avoid
short or common names to reduce the risk of name clashes.
Generally anything not exported is still accessible from outside the module
using the ModuleName::item_name (or $blessed_ref->method) syntax. By convention you can use a leading underscore on names to
indicate informally that they are 'internal' and not for public use.
(It is actually possible to get private functions by saying:
my $subref = sub { ... }; &$subref;. But there's no way to call that directly as a method, because a method
must have a name in the symbol table.)
As a general rule, if the module is trying to be object oriented then
export nothing. If it's just a collection of functions then
@EXPORT_OK anything but use @EXPORT with caution.
Having 57 modules all called Sort will not make life easy for anyone (though having 23 called Sort::Quick is only marginally better :-). Imagine someone trying to install your module alongside many others. If in any doubt ask for suggestions in comp.lang.perl.misc.
If you are developing a suite of related modules/classes it's good practice to use nested classes with a common prefix as this will avoid namespace clashes. For example: Xyz::Control, Xyz::View, Xyz::Model etc. Use the modules in this list as a naming guide.
If adding a new module to a set, follow the original author's standards for naming modules and the interface to methods in those modules.
To be portable each component of a module name should be limited to 11 characters. If it might be used on DOS then try to ensure each is unique in the first 8 characters. Nested modules make this easier.
The best way to know for sure, and pick up many helpful suggestions, is to ask someone who knows. Comp.lang.perl.misc is read by just about all the people who develop modules and it's the best place to ask.
All you need to do is post a short summary of the module, its purpose and interfaces. A few lines on each of the main methods is probably enough. (If you post the whole module it might be ignored by busy people - generally the very people you want to read it!)
Don't worry about posting if you can't say when the module will be ready - just say so in the message. It might be worth inviting others to help you, they may be able to complete it for you!
Perl, for example, is supplied with two types of license: The GNU GPL and The Artistic License (see the files README, Copying, and Artistic). Larry has good reasons for NOT just using the GNU GPL.
My personal recommendation, out of respect for Larry, Perl, and the perl community at large is to state something simply like:
Copyright (c) 1995 Your Name. All rights reserved. This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the same terms as Perl itself.
This statement should at least appear in the README file. You may also wish to include it in a Copying file and your source files. Remember to include the other words in addition to the Copyright.
$VERSION = "0.01"). Don't use a ``1.3.2'' style version. See Exporter.pm in Perl5.001m or
later for details.
It may be handy to add a function or method to retrieve the number. Use the number in announcements and archive file names when releasing the module (ModuleName-1.02.tar.Z). See perldoc ExtUtils::MakeMaker.pm for details.
If possible you should place the module into a major ftp archive and include details of its location in your announcement.
Some notes about ftp archives: Please use a long descriptive file name which includes the version number. Most incoming directories will not be readable/listable, i.e., you won't be able to see your file after uploading it. Remember to send your email notification message as soon as possible after uploading else your file may get deleted automatically. Allow time for the file to be processed and/or check the file has been processed before announcing its location.
FTP Archives for Perl Modules:
Follow the instructions and links on
http://franz.ww.tu-berlin.de/modulelist
or upload to one of these sites:
ftp://franz.ww.tu-berlin.de/incoming ftp://ftp.cis.ufl.edu/incoming
and notify <upload@franz.ww.tu-berlin.de>.
By using the WWW interface you can ask the Upload Server to mirror your modules from your ftp or WWW site into your own directory on CPAN!
Please remember to send me an updated entry for the Module list!
perl -e 'use Module::Name; method(@ARGV)' ...
or
perl -mModule::Name ... (in perl5.002)